The Ultimate Guide to Reading, Writing, and Spelling Challenges: Causes, Signs, and Treatment
Alexis Irazoque, M.S., CCC-SLP
Reading and writing don’t come easily for everyone. If your child is struggling with reading, writing, or spelling, you might be wondering what’s going on—and how to help. These challenges may be signs of a literacy disorder, such as dyslexia or dysgraphia.
A literacy disorder affects the way a person learns and uses written language. It can make it hard to read fluently, understand what’s read, organize thoughts on paper, or spell words correctly. These difficulties may also be called a written language disorder, reading disability, writing disability, or spelling disorder.
As speech-language pathologists, we know how overwhelming it can feel to see your child struggle with these everyday skills. But there is hope and help.
This guide explains the signs of reading, writing, and spelling challenges; what causes them; and how literacy disorders are treated. Plus, get expert tips for helping your child at home. Whether your child has dyslexia, another reading disorder, or a writing disorder like dysgraphia, you’ll learn what steps to take next.
What is a literacy disorder?
A literacy disorder is a learning difference that makes it hard for someone to read, write, or spell. These challenges are not due to a lack of effort or intelligence. Instead, they often come from how the brain processes language. People with literacy disorders may have trouble:
Sounding out words
Recognizing sight words
Understanding what they read
Organizing their thoughts in writing
Spelling correctly
One of the most common types of literacy disorders is dyslexia, a condition that mainly affects reading skills. However, there are other types that can cause challenges with reading, writing, and spelling.
Literacy disorders, also called written language disorders, often involve deeper language processing areas. These include how someone hears and uses sounds (phonology), builds words (morphology), forms sentences (syntax), and understands meaning (semantics). These areas work together to help us read and write fluently, so when even one part is disrupted, it can impact overall literacy.
The good news is that with the right support and strategies, people with literacy disorders can make great progress. Early help and consistent practice can make a big difference.
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Speech therapy can help children with reading, writing, and spelling challenges. Get matched with the right therapist for your child today.
Get startedUnderstanding reading challenges in children
Reading is the process of turning written symbols, such as letters, into spoken words and understanding their meaning. For many children, this skill comes with practice. But some children have reading struggles that make learning to read much harder.
Reading involves several important skills working together:
Recognizing words: This includes sounding out unfamiliar words (called decoding) and remembering common words by sight (called sight word recognition).
Understanding sounds: Matching letters to the sounds we speak, a skill known as phonological awareness.
Reading smoothly: Reading out loud at a steady pace, without frequent pauses, and using expression.
Getting the meaning: Understanding what the text says by using vocabulary, grammar, and background knowledge.
When one or more of these areas is difficult, a child may have a reading disability, also known as a reading disorder. These challenges can affect reading accuracy, speed, and comprehension. However, with the right support, most children with reading disorders can improve their skills and grow into confident readers.
Understanding dyslexia, a common reading disability
Dyslexia is a reading disability that makes it hard for someone to learn how to read. People with dyslexia have trouble matching sounds with letters and understanding how those sounds work together in words. This can make reading, writing, and spelling more difficult.
It’s important to remember that dyslexia has nothing to do with how smart someone is. In fact, many people with dyslexia are very bright. The problem is caused by a difference in the way the brain processes language.
People with dyslexia have trouble matching sounds with letters and understanding how those sounds work together in words.
Dyslexia is the most common reading disorder, affecting up to 1 in 5 people. It can range from mild to severe. Dyslexia can be diagnosed at different ages. Some people find out they have it in early childhood, while others may not be diagnosed until later in life. Getting help early can make a big difference in school and in daily life.
Children with dyslexia often need extra support, such as special teaching strategies or tutoring. With the right help, they can become confident readers.
Signs of dyslexia at different ages
Dyslexia symptoms in toddlers and preschoolers:
Late talking
Slow vocabulary growth
Problems saying words correctly (reversing sounds, or mixing up sounds that are similar)
Difficulty identifying or naming letters and numbers
Difficulty learning songs or rhyming
Dyslexia symptoms in school-age children:
Reading below what’s expected for their age
Problems processing and understanding speech
Difficulty finding the right words when speaking
Difficulty remembering sequences, or the order in which things happen
Problems seeing and hearing differences in letters and sounds
Difficulty sounding out words
Problems with spelling
Taking a long time to finish reading or writing tasks
Avoiding activities that involve reading
If you notice any of these signs, it’s a good idea to talk to a teacher, reading specialist, or speech-language pathologist.
Understanding writing difficulties and disorders
Writing is how we share our thoughts, ideas, and information using letters, words, and sentences. For many kids, learning to write takes time and practice. But for some, writing struggles can make this process much harder.
Writing involves several steps:
Thinking about what to say: Deciding the message, story, or information you want to share.
Organizing your ideas: Putting your thoughts in order so they make sense to others.
Using words and sentences: Choosing the right words and building sentences to express your ideas.
Following writing rules: Using correct spelling, punctuation, and grammar to help your writing be clear.
Checking your work: Rereading and editing to improve how your message sounds and looks.
Children with a writing disability or writing disorder may struggle with one or more of these steps. They may have a hard time putting thoughts into words, forming sentences, spelling correctly, or organizing their writing. Some children may also have handwriting difficulties, which can make writing feel slow and frustrating.
In school, writing is used in many ways, from telling stories to writing essays and answering questions on tests. When kids have writing challenges, they may fall behind or feel discouraged. But with the right help, they can build the skills they need to become stronger, more confident writers.
What is dysgraphia?
Dysgraphia is a writing disorder that makes it hard for a person to write clearly and easily. It’s a neurological condition, which means it’s related to how the brain works. A person with dysgraphia may struggle with the physical act of writing, like holding a pencil. Or it may be hard for them to put their thoughts into written words.
This writing disability can show up in different ways. Some children may have messy handwriting, get tired quickly while writing, or struggle with organizing their ideas. Others may know what they want to say but find it hard to spell, use correct grammar, or write complete sentences.
Writing is a complicated process that involves many brain skills, like:
Fine motor control (small muscle movements in the hands)
Memory (remembering what to write and how)
Language processing (choosing the right words)
Organization (putting ideas in order)
Because of this, dysgraphia can look different for each person. Dysgraphia may be hard to identify at first. It often appears when children are first learning to write. This is called developmental dysgraphia. In rare cases, a person may develop dysgraphia after a brain injury, which is called acquired dysgraphia.
Dysgraphia is considered a “specific learning disorder in written expression.” With the right support and strategies, people with dysgraphia can improve their writing skills and succeed in school.
Understanding spelling struggles and what they mean
Spelling is the process of writing words correctly by matching the sounds we hear to the letters we write. It’s more than just memorizing how a word looks. It’s about connecting spoken language to written language. Spelling involves:
Hearing and identifying sounds: Recognizing the individual sounds in a word (for example, the sounds /k/, /a/, and /t/ in the word “cat”).
Matching sounds to letters: Knowing which letters or letter combinations make those sounds (e.g., "c" for /k/, "a" for /a/, and "t" for /t/).
Putting letters in the correct order: Writing the letters in the right sequence to form a word.
Spelling also depends on understanding word parts (like prefixes and suffixes), patterns in how English words are formed, and even the meaning of a word. For example, knowing that “there,” “their,” and “they’re” sound the same but mean different things helps writers choose the correct spelling.
Children with spelling difficulties may have trouble with one or more of these steps. These struggles are often linked to other literacy challenges, like reading or writing problems. In fact, spelling, reading, and writing are all closely connected. A child can be a strong reader but still struggle with spelling, especially if they have trouble remembering how words look or how to break them down into parts.
Some kids have a harder time learning spelling rules, recognizing patterns, or remembering how to spell even common words. These challenges can be a sign of a learning difference and may be part of a larger literacy disorder.
Spelling can improve with practice, support, and the right teaching strategies. Understanding why a child is struggling is the first step to helping them become a more confident and accurate speller.
What causes reading and writing disorders?
Reading and writing disorders can happen for different reasons. Let’s explore some common causes of literacy problems.
Language-based causes involve difficulties with the basic skills needed for reading and writing. For example, a person may struggle to recognize rhyming words or match letters with the sounds they make. They might also have trouble understanding how words are combined to form sentences. These language skills are the building blocks for reading and writing, so if a child has delays in these areas, it can make learning much harder.
External factors are things in a child’s environment that can affect their literacy development. If a child doesn’t have many chances to hear stories, look at books, or practice early reading and writing, they may fall behind. In some cases, limited access to quality teaching, books, or support at school, often due to financial or social challenges, can also slow progress.
Internal factors come from within the child, such as genetics or how their brain works. For instance, if other family members have struggled with reading or writing, the child might be more likely to have similar challenges. Certain brain differences can make it harder to process language. This is the case with dyslexia, a common reading disorder that affects how the brain decodes words. A child with dysgraphia, a writing disability, may have trouble with spelling, handwriting, or organizing their thoughts on paper.
Literacy milestones: What’s typical and when to seek help
A big part of early reading and writing development happens in the preschool years through first grade. During this time, children build important skills that form the foundation for strong reading and writing later on. These literacy milestones help parents, caregivers, and teachers understand what is typical and when a child may need extra support.
Let’s take a closer look at what children are usually able to do at age 4, in kindergarten, and by the end of first grade.
Literacy milestones for 4-year-olds
By age 4, most kids are in preschool and getting ready for kindergarten. While they’re not expected to be reading or writing on their own yet, many important skills begin to emerge:
Understands basic book concepts, like how to hold a book and where to start reading
Recognizes some letters
Begins to rhyme (e.g., cat/hat)
Shows interest in writing by scribbling or trying to write letters
These early steps are a natural part of how we learn to read. Regular exposure to books, stories, and play-based writing activities helps children build confidence.
Literacy milestones for kindergarteners
By age 5, especially in kindergarten, you can expect rapid growth in early literacy skills:
Knows how text works, like reading happens from left to right and top to bottom
Recognizes uppercase and lowercase letters
Can identify sounds in words (e.g., “dog” starts with /d/)
Reads some sight words like “the,” “I,” and “you” without needing to sound them out
Writes letters and simple words
Kindergarten is a key year in reading development. If a child isn’t recognizing letters or showing interest in books by the middle or end of the year, it may be time to ask for support.
Literacy milestones for first graders
In first grade, kids typically move from learning to read toward reading to learn. They begin to develop more advanced reading and writing skills, such as:
Understanding what they read, like who the characters are and what happened in the story
Breaking apart and blending sounds
Reading more complex words with long vowels and silent “e” (like “cake” or “ride”)
Reading more sight words
Writing complete sentences with capital letters and correct punctuation
Spelling simple words
Self-correcting
If a child is still struggling to match sounds to letters, remember sight words, or write basic sentences by the end of first grade, early intervention can make a big difference.
Signs of a reading or writing problem in children
Not every child learns to read and write in the same way or at the same pace. But when certain literacy skills aren’t developing as expected, it could be a sign of a reading or writing disorder. Below are some common literacy disorder symptoms to look for by age group. Keep in mind, this is not a complete list.
Preschool age
Doesn’t recognize sound patterns in songs or books (for example, can’t pick out or say words that start with the same sound)
Struggles to recognize letters of the alphabet
Has trouble copying simple lines or shapes, which are early writing skills
Early elementary (kindergarten to grade 2)
Has difficulty identifying sounds in words (for example, can’t tell which word starts with a different sound)
Struggles to match letters with their sounds (like knowing that “D” makes the /d/ sound in “dog”)
Finds it hard to read or retell a story in the right order
Avoids or struggles with writing short stories, journal entries, or basic sentences
Can’t write uppercase and lowercase letters correctly
Spells simple, common words incorrectly (like “sat,” “play,” or “best”)
These are early signs of a reading disorder or writing disorder that may need attention.
Later elementary and above (grades 3 and up)
Trouble understanding how word parts work (for example, reads “walked” by sounding out each part, like “walk-ED,” instead of blending it)
Has difficulty telling the main idea or key details when reading
Struggles to plan out writing tasks, including researching a topic or organizing notes
Writes more grammatically incorrect sentences than other children the same age
Has problems with spelling
If your child has signs of a literacy disorder, it’s a good idea to talk with a professional who can help with reading and writing challenges, like a speech-language pathologist or a specialist teacher.
How are literacy disorders treated?
Written language disorders, like reading and writing difficulties, need a team approach. This means different professionals work together to support a person’s learning. A speech therapist plays an important role in this process. Other members of the team might include reading specialists, occupational therapists, special education teachers, learning specialists, physical therapists, and English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers.
Speech therapists are trained to assess and treat people with written language disorders. They create personalized care plans based on each person’s needs and goals. These plans are functional and practical, and often include support from the person’s family to help with progress at home and school. You can learn more about how Expressable treats people with written language disorders in our treatment guide.
Speech therapists are trained to assess and treat people with written language disorders.
Reading disorder therapy should focus on all the areas where someone may struggle. Some people need help with basic skills, like sounding out words or spelling common words correctly. Others might need help understanding what they read or organizing their thoughts when writing. Therapy teaches these skills using real and meaningful language whenever possible.
To do this, speech therapists use a mix of evidence-based strategies to target different skills at the same time. For example, a therapy session might include:
Phonological awareness activities
Spelling rule practice
Reading comprehension strategies
Guided writing tasks
One session might start with learning letter-sound relationships and end with writing a short story or summarizing something they’ve read.
Common treatment strategies for literacy disorders include:
Graphic organizers (to plan writing)
Dialogic reading (interactive reading aloud)
Story grammar instruction (learning the parts of a story)
The writing lab approach (writing with teacher guidance)
This kind of literacy disorder treatment helps people improve their reading and writing skills and use them in everyday life. By targeting the full range of symptoms, therapy gives people the tools to become more confident, independent learners.
Therapy works best when everyone is involved. That includes the child, their family, the speech therapist, and other team members. Success depends not only on the therapy itself, but also on the person’s motivation and how much they practice outside of sessions. That’s why we believe in shared decision-making and encouraging people and their families to take an active role in therapy.
How Expressable assesses and treats written language disorders
If you’re worried about your or your child’s reading, writing, or spelling, schedule an evaluation with an Expressable speech therapist. Our certified speech therapists are trained to identify and treat the underlying language issues that can affect literacy. These may include difficulties with vocabulary, grammar, sound awareness, or how the brain processes written language.
At the start of therapy, your Expressable speech therapist will complete a full evaluation. They’ll perform standardized or norm-referenced tests based on your child’s age and needs. The evaluation often includes tasks related to vocabulary, sentence understanding, phonological awareness, and decoding (sounding out words). This helps the therapist understand your child’s strengths and challenges and create a personalized treatment plan.
Most treatment plans for literacy disorders include two therapy sessions per week. All therapy is done online through live video sessions, making it easy for families to attend from home.
Here’s what to expect in online therapy based on age:
Ages 0-3: Parents meet with the speech therapist to learn how to support early language and literacy through play, books, and daily routines. Learn more about the importance of parental involvement in children’s speech therapy here.
Ages 3-6: Parents attend video sessions with their child and practice strategies together. This helps build skills between sessions.
Ages 7 and up: Older children often attend sessions on their own. Parents receive regular updates and ideas to keep progress going at home.
Adults: Adults meet one-on-one with their therapist. Family members can join if desired.
Get matched with a speech therapist who's right for you
Get started nowSupport beyond sessions: The Expressable portal
At Expressable, we believe therapy shouldn’t end when the video call is over. That’s why every client gets access to our online client portal, a powerful tool designed to help you practice and grow between sessions. The portal includes:
Learning Paths: Easy-to-follow lessons that explain the strategies your therapist is using, such as identifying spelling patterns or practicing rhyming and sentence building.
Demo videos: Short videos created by our experts that show how to support literacy development at home. You’ll learn key skills like blending sounds, segmenting words, and decoding. Watch one here!
Home practice activities: Simple, therapist-recommended exercises that fit into your everyday life, like reading during snack time or writing stories about your weekend.
Texting with your therapist: Have a quick question? Need support or tips? You can text your therapist directly to stay connected between sessions.
These tools are designed to make literacy disorder treatment easier and more effective for busy families. When practice becomes part of your daily routine, you or your child can make faster progress and build lasting skills in reading and writing.
3 expert tips to help your child with reading, writing, and spelling
Parents play a key role in supporting their child’s confidence and success. By using these simple strategies at home, you can give your child the tools they need to build strong literacy skills and feel more confident with reading, writing, and spelling.
1 Make reading a conversation
Talking about books can help children think deeply, understand what they read, and learn new words. These small conversations are a great way to help with reading struggles while building important language skills.
Try this three-step approach:
Before reading: Look at the cover and pictures. Ask your child what they think the story might be about.
During reading: Pause and talk about what’s happening. Ask questions like, “Why do you think the character did that?” or “How is she feeling?”
After reading: Talk about the story’s message or how it’s similar to your child’s own life. This helps them make personal connections and remember what they’ve read.
2 Read aloud together for fluency
Reading out loud is one of the best ways to build reading fluency. “Fluency” means reading smoothly, with good pacing and expression. Reading out loud can also give your child a boost of confidence.
Here are some ways to make read-aloud time more effective:
Be a model: Read aloud first, showing how to use expression and pause at punctuation. Then invite your child to try reading the same part with you.
Use familiar books: Choose books your child already knows or that are slightly easier. This helps them focus on fluency, not just decoding.
Talk about meaning: Remind your child that fluency isn’t about speed. It’s about understanding what the words mean. Ask simple questions as you read to check for comprehension.
Quick demo: How to read a book to your child like a speech therapist
Watch here3 Use visual and hands-on techniques
Many children learn best when they can see, touch, and hear at the same time. These multisensory strategies are especially helpful if your child needs support for spelling or writing problems.
Try these easy techniques at home:
Highlight key words: Use a highlighter to mark important words in a sentence.
Cover extra text: If the page is overwhelming, cover some of it to help your child focus on just one line at a time.
Point as you read: Guide your child’s eyes by pointing to each word while reading aloud together.
Tactile spelling: Let your child spell words by writing them in shaving cream, sand, or on textured paper. It makes spelling fun and memorable.
Follow along with audiobooks: Listening to an audiobook while reading the printed version helps your child connect spoken and written words.
Use captions: Turn on subtitles when watching TV or videos. Seeing the words while hearing them builds word recognition and fluency.
By using these tips regularly, you can make literacy learning part of your everyday routine. These small changes can make a big difference in your child’s reading and writing skills—and help them feel more confident, too.
Get started at Expressable
Whether you or your child struggles with reading, writing, or spelling, support is available. At Expressable, our speech therapists specialize in treating literacy and written language disorders, including dyslexia and dysgraphia. Get matched with a certified therapist who understands your needs and can work around your schedule. Find a speech therapist today–it's quick and easy!
